Minimum Quantity Lubrication Essays

Minimum Quantity Lubrication Essays Minimum Quantity Lubrication Essay Minimum Quantity Lubrication Essay ABSTRACT Metal cutting fluids changes the performance of machining operations because of their lubrication, cooling, and chip flushing functions. Typically, in the machining of hardened steel materials, no cutting fluid is applied in the interest of low cutting forces and low environmental impacts. Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) presents itself as a viable alternative for hard machining with respect to tool wear, heat dissertation, and machined surface quality. This study compares the mechanical performance of minimum quantity lubrication to completely dry lubrication for the turning of hardened bearing-grade steel materials based on experimental measurement of cutting forces, tool temperature, white layer depth, and part finish. The results indicate that the use of minimum quantity lubrication leads to reduced surface roughness delayed tool flank wear, and lower cutting temperature, while also having a minimal effect on the cutting forces. Minimum quantity lubrication. doc (Size: 2. 7 MB / Downloads: 63) password:seminarprojects CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The growing demand for higher productivity, product quality and overall economy in manufacturing by machining and grinding, particularly to meet the challenges thrown by liberalization and global cost competitiveness, insists high material removal rate and high stability and long life of the cutting tools. But high production machining and grinding with high cutting velocity, feed and depth o f cut are inherently associated with generation of large amount of heat and high cutting temperature. Such high cutting temperature not only reduces dimensional accuracy and tool life but also impairs the surface integrity of the product. In high speed machining conventional cutting fluid application fails to penetrate the chip–tool interface and thus cannot remove heat effectively. Addition of extreme pressure additives in the cutting fluids does not ensure penetration of coolant at the chip–tool interface to provide lubrication and cooling . However ,high-pressure jet of soluble oil, when applied at the chip–tool interface, could reduce cutting temperature and improve tool life to some extent . However, the advantages caused by the cutting fluids have been questioned lately, due to the several negative effectsthey cause. When inappropriately handled, cutting fluids may damage soil and water resources, causing serious loss to the environment. Therefore, the handling and disposal of cutting fluids must obey rigid rules of environmental protection. On the shop floor, the machine operators may be affected by thebad effects of cutting fluids, such as by skin and breathing problems For the companies, the costs related to cutting fluids represent a large amount of the total machining costs. Several research workers state that the costs related to cutting fluids are frequently higher than those related to cutting tools. Consequently, elimination on the use of cutting fluids, if possible, can be a significant economic incentive. Considering the high cost associated with the use of cutting fluids and projected escalating costs when the stricter environmental laws are enforced, the choice seems obvious. Because of them some alternatives has been sought to minimize or even avoid the use of cutting fluid in machining operations. Some of these alternatives are dry machining and machining with minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). Dry machining is now of great interest and actually, they meet with success in the field of environmentally friendly manufacturing . In reality, however, they are sometimes less effective when higher machining efficiency, better surface finish quality and severe cutting conditions are required. For these situations, semi-dry operations utilizing very small amount of cutting fluids are expected to become a powerful tool and, in fact, they already play a significant role in a number of practical applications . inimum quantity lubrication (MQL) refers to the use of cutting fluids of only a minute amount- typically of a flow rate of 50–500 ml/h which is about three to four orders of magnitude lower than the amount commonly used in flood cooling condition. The concept of minimum quantity lubrication, sometimes referred to as near dry lubrication or micro-lubrication , has been sugges ted since a decade ago as a mean of addressing the issues of environmental intrusiveness and occupational hazards associated with the airborne cutting fluid particles on factory shop floors. The minimization of cutting fluid also leads to economical benefits by way of saving lubricant costs and work piece/tool/machine cleaning cycle time. Significant progress has been made in dry and semidry machining recently, and minimum quantity lubrication(MQL) machining in particular has been accepted as a successful semi-dry application because of its environmentally friendly characteristics. Some good results have been obtained with this technique . Lugscheider et al. sed this technique in reaming process of gray cast iron and aluminum alloy with coated carbide tools and concluded that it caused a reduction of tool wear when compared with the completely dry process and, consequently, an improvement in the surface quality of the holes. The drilling of aluminum–silicon alloys is one of those processes where dry cutting is impossible due to the high ductility of the work piece material. Without cooling and lubrication, the chip sticks to the tool and breaks it in a very short cutting time. There fore, in this process a good alternative is the use of the MQL technique The present work experimentally investigates the role of minimum quantity lubrication on cutting temperature, chip reduction coefficient and dimensional deviation in plain turning of AISI-1040 steel at different speed-feed combinations by uncoated carbide insert and compares the effectiveness of MQL with that of dry machining and conventional cutting fluid. CHAPTER 2 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PROCEDURE For the present experimental studies, AISI-1040 steel rod of initial diameter 110mm and length 620mm was plain turned in a BMTF Lathe, Bangladesh, 4 hp by uncoated carbide insert of integrated chip breaker geometry at different speed-feed combinations under dry, wet and minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) conditions to study the role of MQL on the machinability characteristics of that work material mainly in respect of cutting temperature, chip reduction coefficient and dimensional deviation. The experimental conditions are given in Table 1. Machine tool BMTF Lathe, Bangladesh, 4 hp Work piece AISI-1040 steel (size: O110mm? 620 mm) Cutting tool (insert) Cutting insert Carbide, SNMM 120408 (P-30 ISOspecification), Drillco Tool holder PSBNR 2525M12(ISO specification), Working tool geometry ? 6? , ? 6? , 6? , 6? , 15? , 75? , 0. 8 (mm) Cutting velocity, Vc 64, 80, 110 and 130 m/min Feed rate, So 0. 10, 0. 13, 0. 16 and 0. 20 mm/rev Depth of cut, t 1. 0mm MQL supply: Air 7 bar, Lubricant: 60 ml/h (throughexternal nozzle) Environment: Dry, wet (flood cooling) and minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) Table2. 1 Experimental conditions The ranges of the cutting velocity (Vc) and feed rate (So) were selected based on the tool manufacturer’s recommendation and industrial practices. The depth of cut was kept constant since it has much less significant role on the machining characteristics excepting the magnitude of the cutting forces, which simply increase proportionally with the increase in depth of cut. The MQL needs to be supply at high pressure and impinged at high speed through the nozzle at the cutting zone. Considering the conditions required for the present work and uninterrupted supply of MQL at constant pressure over a reasonably long cut, a MQL delivery system has been designed, fabricated and used. The schematic view of the MQL set up is shown in Fig. 1. The thin but high velocity stream of MQL was projected along the auxiliary cutting edge of the insert, as indicated in a frame within Fig. 1, so that the coolant reaches as close to the chip–tool and the work–tool interfaces as possible . The photographic view of the experimental set-up is Figure 2. 1 Experimental setup Figure2. 1Block diagram of MQL The MQL jet has been used mainly to target the rake and flank surface along the auxiliary cutting edge and to protect the auxiliary flank to enable better dimensional accuracy . MQL is expected to provide some favorable effects mainly through reduction in cutting temperature. The simple but reliable tool–work thermocouple technique has been employed to measure the average cutting temperature during turning at different Vc–So combinations by the uncoated carbide insert under dry, wet and MQL conditions. For the present investigation, the calibration of the tool–work thermocouple has been carried out by external flame heating. The tool–work thermocouple junction was constructed using a long continuous chip of the concerned work material and a tungsten carbide insert to be used in actual cutting. To avoid generation of parasitic emf, a long carbide rod was used to extend the insert. A standard K-type thermocouple is mounted at the site of tool–work junction. The oxy-acetylenetorch simulated the heat generation phenomena in machining and raised the temperature at the chip–tool interface. Standard thermocouple directly monitored the junction temperature when a digital multimeter monitored the emf generated by the hot junction of the chip–tool. The effect of MQL on average chip–tool interface temperature at different Vc and So under dry, wet and MQL conditions is shown in Fig. 3. The chip samples collected while turning the steel by the insert of configuration SNMM at different Vc–So combinations under dry, wet and MQL condition have been visually examined and categorized with respect to their shape and color. The result of such categorization of the chips produced at different conditions and environments by the AISI-1040 steel. The actual forms of the chips produced during machining the steel with a cutting velocity 110 m/min and feed 0. 6 mm/rev under dry, wet and MQL conditions is shown in Fig. 4. Another important machinability index is chip reduction coefficient, ? (ratio of chip thickness after and before cut). For given tool geometry and cutting conditions, the value of ? depends upon the nature of chip–tool interaction, chip contact length and chip form all of which are expected to be influenced by MQL in addition to the levels of Vc and So. The variation in value of ? with Vc and So as well as machining environment evaluated for AISI-1040 steel have been plotted and shown in Fig. 5. The deviations in the job diameter before and after cuts were measured by a precision dial gauge with a least count of 1_m, which was traveled parallel to the axis of the job . MQL provided remarkable benefit in respect of controlling the increase in diameter of the finished job with machining time as can be seen in Fig. 6. Fig. 3. Variations in average chip–tool interface temperature with cutting velocity and feed rate during turning under dry, wet and MQL conditions CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During machining any ductile materials, heat is generated at the primary eformation zone, secondary deformation zone and the flank (clearance) surfaces, but the temperature becomes maximum at the chip–tool interface. The cutting temperature measured in the present work r efers mainly to the average chip–tool interface temperature. Any cutting fluid applied conventionally cannot reduce this chip–tool interface temperature effectively because the fluid can hardly penetrate into that the interface where the chip–tool contact is mostly plastic in nature particularly at higher cutting velocity and feed. However, MQL jet could have reduced the cutting temperature quite significantly though in different degrees for different cutting velocity and feed combinations as can be seen in Fig. 3. The presence of the grooves along the cutting edges and the hills on the tool rake surface and reduced chip–tool contact length may have helped the MQL jet to come closer to the chip–tool interface and thus effectively cool that interface. The difference in the effectiveness of MQL observed under different Vc and So can be reasonably attributed to variation in the nature and extent of chip–tool contact with the changes in Vc and So. The pattern of chips in machining ductile metals generally depend upon the mechanical properties of the work material, tool geometry particularly rake angle, levels of Vc and So, nature of chip–tool interaction and the cutting environment . In absence of chip breaker, length and uniformity of chips increase with the increase in ductility and softness of the work material, tool rake angle and cutting velocity unless thechip–tool interaction is adverse causing intensive friction and built-up edge formation. Table 3. Shape and co lour of chips at different vc and so condition It shows that the steel when machined under dry and wet conditions produced spiral type chips and the color of the chips become blue. The geometry of the insert is such that the chips first came out continuously got curled along normal plane and then hitting at the principal flank of the insert broke into pieces with regular size and shape. When machined under MQL the form of these ductile chips chang e appreciably into more or less half turn and their back surface appeared much brighter and smoother. This indicates hat the amount of reduction of temperature and presence of MQL enabled favorable chip–tool interaction and elimination of even trace of built-up edge formation. The color of the chips have also become much lighter, i. e. metallic from blue depending upon Vc and So due to reduction in cutting temperature by MQL. The actual forms of chips produced during turning at cutting velocity 110 m/min and feed 0. 16 mm/rev under dry, wet and MQL condition as can be seen in Fig. 4. Figure 3. 1 shape of chips at different condition Fig. 4. Actual forms of chips produced during turning at cutting velocity 110 m/min and feed 0. 6 mm/rev under (a) dry, (b) wet and  © MQL conditions. Almost all the parameters involved in machining have direct and indirect influence on the thickness of the chips during deformation. The degree of chip thickening which is assessed by chip reducti on coefficient, ? plays sizeable role on cutting forces and hence on cutting energy requirements and cutting temperature. Fig. 5 shows that MQL has reduced the value of ? particularly at lower values of Vc and So. Figure. 3. 2. Variation in chip reduction coefficient, ? , with cutting velocity and feed rate during turning under dry, wet and MQL conditions. By MQL application, ? s reasonably expected to decrease for reduction in friction at the chip–tool interface and reduction in deterioration of effective rake angle by built-up edge formation and wear of the cutting edge mainly due to reduction in cutting temperature . MQL provided remarkable benefit in respect of controlling the increase in diameter of the finished job with machining time as can be seen in Fig. 6. Figure. 3. 3. Dimensional deviations observed after one full pass under dry, wet and MQL conditions In straight turning, the finished job diameter generally deviates from its desired value with the progress of mac hining, i. e. long the job-length mainly for change in the effective depth of cut due to several reasons which include wear of the tool nose, over all compliance of the machine–fixture–tool–work (M–F–T–W) system and thermal expansion of the job during machining followed by cooling. Therefore, if the M–F–T–W system is rigid, variation in diameter would be governed mainly by the heat and cutting temperature . With the increase in temperature the rate of growth of auxiliary flank wear and thermal expansion of the job will increase. MQL takes away the major portion of heat and reduces the temperature yielding reduction in dimensional deviation desirably CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of the present experimental investigation the following conclusions can be drawn: The cutting performance of MQL machining is better than that of conventional machining with flood cutting fluid supply. MQL provides the benefits mainly by reducing the cutting temperature, which improves the chip–tool interaction and maintains sharpness of the cutting edges. Due to MQL, the form and color of the steel chips became favorable for more effective cooling and improvements in nature of interaction at the chip–tool interface. Dimensional accuracy improved mainly due to reduction of wear and damage at the tool tip by the application of MQL. CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES [1] M. C. Shaw, J. D. Pigott, L. P. Richardson, Effect of cutting fluid upon chip–tool interface temperature, Trans. ASME 71 (1951) 45–56. [2] S. Paul, N. R. Dhar, A. B. Chattopadhyay, Beneficial effects of cryogenic cooling over dry and wet machining on tool wear and surface finish in turning AISI-1060 steel, in: Proceedings of the ICAMT- 2000, Malaysia, 2000, pp. 209–214. [3] C. Cassin, G. Boothroyed, Lubrication action of cutting fluids, J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 7 (1) (1965) 67–81. 4] M. Mazurkiewicz, Z. Kubala, J. Chow, Metal machining with high pressure water-jet cooling assistance- a new possibility, J. Eng. Ind. 111 (1989) 7–12. [5] A. Alaxender, A. S. Varadarajan, P. K. Philip, Hard turning with minimum cutting fluid: a viable green alternative on the shop floor, in: Proceedings of the 18th AIMTDR, 1998, pp. 152–155. [6] M. Sokovic, K. Mijanovic, Ecological aspects of the cutting fluids and its influence on quantifiable parameters of the cutting processes, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 109 (12) (2001) 181–189. [7] F. Klocke, G. Eisennblatter, Dry cutting, Ann. CIRP 46 (2) (1997) 519–526. 8] G. Byrne, E. Scholta, Environmentally clean machining processes- a strategic approach, Ann. CIRP 42 (1) (1993) 471–474. [9] F. Klocke, G. Eisenblatter, Coated tools for metal cutting-features and applications, Ann. CIRP 48 (2) (1999) 515–525. [10] U. Heisel, M. Lutz, Application of minimum quantity cooling lubrication technology in cutting processes, Prod. Eng. II (1) (1994) 49–54. [11] J. W. Sutherland, An experimental investigation of air quality in wet and dry turning, Ann. CIRP 49 (1) (2000) 61–64. sa Reference: seminarprojects. com/Thread-minimum-quantity-lubrication#ixzz1TMka1daG

Strtegic Position of BMW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Strtegic Position of BMW - Essay Example ustrin industrilist Frnz Josef Popp purchsed the compny in 1917 nd renmed it Byerische Motoren Werke. The Trety of Versilles, June 28, 1919, directly influenced the entry of Rpp Motoren Werke (lter to be known s BMW), into utomobile mnufcture s the terms of surrender by Germny resulting from World Wr 1 stipulted under rticles 198, 199 nd 201 tht ny militry or nvl ir forces were prohibited nd it lso stipulted the mnufcture of or importtion of ircrft. Rpp Motoren Werke, s result of sid bn, mde rilwy brkes until its fory into utomobiles in 1929. The hyperinfltion rising s result of the severe economic snctions imposed by the Trety of Versilles rered its hed in the 1920's nd helped to stgnte growth in Germny. This pper will nlyze the strtegic position of BMW with the help of five competitive forces of Porter, SWOT nlysis nd other mrketing nlysis in the utomobile industry. More prticulrly, it will be nlyzed how the forces hve n effect on the cr mnufcturer BMW. Bsed on this nlysis, the force with the most impct on the compny will be identified. Bsed on tht, it will be described how BMW uses informtion systems to offset the force. BMW, which stnds for Byerische Motoren Werke, hs mde well-known nme s luxury cr mnufcturer (Bernhrdt & Kinner, 1994). The hedqurters of the BMW group is in Munich, Germny, but the compny is present ll over the world. The compny built high brnd equity over the yers through continuous brnding efforts nd high qulity products. BMW is rgubly the most dmired crmker in the world nd BMW products inspire ner- fnticl loylty (Kiley, 2004). SWOT nlysis Strengths BMW is well-known compny with high sttus brnding tht hs very high recognition fctor. The compny hs been strengths in both reserch nd development nd design s well s in mrketing. For exmple when it comes to mrketing it ws BMW dvertisement tht ws the first e-dvertisement tht mde it to Cmpigns 'Pick of the Week' (Domn). However, in long-term purchse such s this there is need for moire substnce thn just mrketing, otherwise the life of the compny would be reltively short due to the nture of the purchse. It is in these longer-term systems nd strtegies tht we cn see mny of the strengths of BMW, we cn consider these by strting with the mrket position of the compny. BMW s well s Mercedes' nd few other compnies hve mnged too successful ttin m mrket position where they hve focus on nrrow rnge of exclusive crs. These cn be seen s imed t the mrket plce tht is not lso sensitive to price, nd s such we must rgue tht the mrket positioning my be seen s strength s there will not be such rection if the economic conditions chnge. The customers tht re in the trget group re hppy to py premium price for wht they perceive s premium product (Thompson). This my not be so true of the subsidiry compnies tht hve hd different problems, such s the ill-fted Rover group. However, the core product hs remined strong (Thompson). This my be seen s diversifiction, nd some of the diversifiction my lso be seen s strength, for exmple the purchse of Rolls Royce where there is similr strtegy, however the rnge nd trget mrket re even more focused nd exclusive. The strtegy of BMW is designed to be defensive ginst other cr mnufctures, nd s we will see when it comes to the section on threts this is defensive

The government of the United States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The government of the United States - Essay Example The government of the United States is based on a constitution first developed in 1789 making it the first constitutional state in the world. The constitution relies on the principles of federalism which provides for a mechanism of power-sharing between the federal states and the central government. The fact that the country has fifty semi-autonomous states coming together under one central government influenced the formation of an effective and concrete constitution that captures the interests of all the states. Additionally, the racial segregation later in the history of the country and the subsequent abolition of the slave trade resulted in the formation of the American bill of rights to safeguard the interest of every citizen. The bill of rights provides for the respect of human life and to oversee this is the judicial arm of the government constituted of independent courts which exercise their powers thus ensuring obedience to the laws of the land. The constitution defines power s of both the executive and the Congress which are crafted in a way to defend the interest of the citizens and uphold the values of equality among all Americans irrespective of their diverse backgrounds. Wood (1998) asserts that the American government has three arms namely the judiciary, the executive, and the legislature all of which are independent in their operations. The three tires approach to governance protects the citizens from exploitation thus resulting in a more responsive form of governance over time.

The development of mughlai cuisine of North India

The development of mughlai cuisine of North India 2.1. Introduction To study the impact of events on the development of Mughlai cuisine of North India and the further scopes to promote food tourism destination. The aim of this chapter is to provide its readers with an overview into the topic of the research. The first section of this chapter would deal with the introduction to the Mughal History, Imperial cuisine and Sultans etiquette . The second section would deal with Tourism and its social and cultural impact on a society. The final section would deal with the relation between Food Tourism , culture and foodways. 2.1.1 Mughal Empire Arab raiders had established their hegemony in Sindh in western India by about AD713 , but the Muslim presence only made itself felt with the raid s of Mohammed of Ghazni from about AD 1000.About AD 1206 the first sultans , those of the slave dynasty , set up rule in Delhi. Eleven of them in successions gave place to two from the house of Balban, six Khaljis, three Tughlaks (including Muhammad bin Tughlak from AD 1324-51), four Saiyyids and three Lodis, stretching in all for slightly more than three hundred years (Life and condition of people in Hindustan ,1935) .In 1526 the ruler Babar established the Mughal dynasty in India. He followed by Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jhan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal period was remarkably well documented. Both the emperors Babar and Jahangir were superb diarists and Akbars affair were minutely chronicled in the Ain-i-Akbari[1] and Akbar-Name by his court historian Abu Fazal. From the time of Jahangir and thereafter, a series of travelers from Europe left vivid impressionistic accounts of the rulers and the people of India. To the somewhat ascetic Hindu dining ambience the Muslims brought refined and courtly etiquette of both group of both group and individual dining, and of sharing food in fellowship. Food items native to India were enriched with nuts, raisins, spices and ghee. These included meat and rice dishes (Palao[2]) , dressed meat (Kabab[3]) , stuffed items (Samosas[4]) , desserts (Halva[5], stewed fruit) and sweetened drinks (Falooda[6], Sherbet[7]). New dishes enriched the cuisine of the wheat finely grounded meat (Halim[8], Harisa[9]), or the frozen Kulfi[10], a rich ice cream of Khoa[11], or Jalebi[12]. Muslims influenced both the style and substance of Indian food. 2.1.2 The Sultans etiquette Mubarak Ali in his thesis ‘The Court of the Great Mughals (1976) has written a great deal to about the dining customs of the Delhi Sultans, which were perhaps unique to Muslims royalty in India. A certain ritual of formality was observed: Before the dinners begins, the Chamberlain[13] stands at the head of the dinners carpet (Simat[14]) and performs the bow (Khidmat[15]) in the direction of sultan; and all present do the same. The khidmat in India consists of bowing down to the knee as in prayers. After this the people would sit down to eat, and then they are bought gold, silver and glass cups filled with fine sugar water perfumed with rose-water which they call sherbet. After they have taken the sherbet, the chamberlain calls out Bismillah[16]. Then all begin to eat. At the end of the dinner, jugs of barley-drink (Fuqqa[17]) are brought; and when these have been consumed, betel leaves and nuts are served. After the people have taken the betel and nuts, the chamberlain calls out Bismillah, whereupon all stand up and bow in the same way as before. Then they retire. Two types of dinners were held in the royal palace, A private dinners is the one that sultan attends. It is his way to eat along with those who are present and those whom he calls for the purpose , such as the special amirs[18]- the head chamberlain (amirhajib) , the sultans paternal cousins , Imad-ul-mulk Sartez and master of ceremonies (amir-i-majlis)- and those out of the aizza (‘The Honourables) and great amirs whom he wants to honour and revere. Occasionally, when he is declined to honour any one from among present, he takes a plate, puts bread on it and gives it to him. The latter receives it: and placing the plate on his left hand, he bows with his right hand touching the ground. Sometimes the Sultan sends something from that meal to one absent from it, and the latter too bows like the one present and sits down to eat it along with those that be in his company. The number nobles attending these private dinners never exceeded twenty. It has been remarked that such long convivialities in the company of nobles served to throw them into Sultans Company, and thus keep them out of trouble. The public dinners are brought from the kitchen led by the palace officers, who call out Bismillah; and they are headed by the chief palace officer. He holds in his hand a gold mace and is accompanied by his deputy who carries a silver mace. As soon as they enter the fourth gate and those in the council-hall hear the call, all stand up and none remain seated, the sultan alone is excepted. When the dishes are served on the floor, the palace of officers stand up in rows, their chiefs standing in front. He makes a discourse in which he praises the sultan and eulogizes him; then he bows to him and in the same manner bow all those present in the council-hall whether big or small. Their custom is that anyone who hears the call of chief palace officer (naqib-un-nuquba[19]) stops instantly, if walking and remains in his place if he happens to be standing and none can move until the discourse is over. Then his deputy too makes a similar discourse and bows; and so do the palace officers and all the people in the second time. Then all the people take their seats; and the gate secretaries draft a report informing the Sultan that the food has been brought, even though he is aware of that. The report is handed over to a boy from one of the maliks son appointed for this purpose and he takes the message to the Sultan who, on reading it, appoints whosoever he likes from among the great amirs to supervise the seating and feeding of the people. Mubarak Ali in his book ‘Mughal Darbar† (1993) has stated something about the seating also: The custom at that point of time was that the judges (Qazis[20]) , orators (Khatibs[21]) and jurists (Shorfa[22]) sit on a carpet (simat) : and then come the sultan relatives , the great amirs and the rest of the people. But none sits expect at his appointed place; and thus there is absolutely no confusion amongst them. All having then their representative seats, the cup bearer (Shurbdariya[23]) who give the holding in their hands gold , silver, copper and glass vessels filled with refined sugar dissolved in water, which they drink at dinner. Everyone had before him, a set of all the various dishes comprising the dinner, which he eats exclusively; and no one shares his plate with another. When they finish eating, the drink (Fuqqa) is served in pewter tankards; and as soon as the people take it the chamberlains call out Bismillah. At that time the while gathering stands up, and the amirs supervising the feast bows, and they bow too; then they retire .The dinners were held twice a day one in the forenoon and the other in the afternoon. 2.1.3 Kings drink ‘Any Muslim who drinks (wine) is punished with 80 stripes, and is shut up in a matamore (cell) for 3 months, which is opened only at the time of meal. So says the Quran (Chapter 6). However there is no doubt that drinking was very common among the sultans and the nobility. For the Mughals wine had a strong attraction. Babar had periodic fits of abstinence, when he would break up his flagons and goblets of gold and silver and give away the pieces, only to resume drinking and the use of bhang, after telling himself (P.N. Chopra ,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ). Akbar, according to the Jesuit Father Monserate, rarely drank wine, proffering bhang. He enforced prohibition in his court , but relaxed rules for European travelers because ‘they are born in the element of wine , as fresh fish are produced in water †¦and to prohibit them the use of it is to deprive them of their life ( J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee 1922, The Cemetery of Father Monserrate). Of his sons, Daniyal and Murad both died young due to excessive drinking. His other son Jahangir was much addicted, but did not drink on Thursdays and Fridays (Nicclao Manucci, Storio de Mogor 1653-1708, trans William Irvine) . However at end of his regime Jahangir would imbibe 20 cups of double distilled liquor daily, 14 during the day and the rest at night (P.N. Chopra ,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ). Shah Jahan drank but never beyond the limits of decency. The next emperor Aurangzeb was of course strict teetotaler who in 1668 issued severe prohibition order to all his subjects, Hindus and Muslim alike. To make this liquor, arrack or rice sprit was put into empty barrel that had contained wine from Europe. The dregs of other barrels were also added, together with water and sweet sugar. After eight mounts, the clear liquid tasting something like white wine. Another wine was made by steeping resins in rice sprit for 3 to 4 days, straining and then holding the liquid in an empty barrel for 6 to 8 months; an extract of dates was sometimes added for sweetness and flavour (William Foster, Early Travels in India 1583-1619). 2.1.4 The Imperial cuisine Babar is said to have lived in India for only 4  ½ years after conquering. He lamented fact that this country had ‘no grapes , musk melons or first rate fruits, no ice cold water, no bread or cooked food in bazaars (A.S.Beveridge, trans. Babur-nama, 1922) . He commented most judiciously on the flora and fauna that he first encountered in this new country. He commented that chironji[24] is â€Å"a thing between the almond and the walnut, and not so bad† .He also described the fish from Hindustan as very savoury and that they had no odour or tiresomeness (meaning probably lack of bones). But heart Babar remained an alien to Indian food. His son Humayun however was much more â€Å"Indianized†. Humayun even gave up animal flesh for some months when he started his campaign to recover the throne, and deciding after some reflection , that beef was not a food for devout (J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee , The Cemetery of Father Monserrate,, 1922). Akbar did not like meat and took it only seasonally ‘to conform to the sprit of the age'(P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India,1963). He abstained from meat at first of all Fridays, subsequently on Sundays also, then on first day of every solar month, then during the whole month of Fawardin[25] (March), and finally during his berth month of Aban[26] (November). He started his meal with curds and rice, and preferred simple food. One of travelers Father Monserate documented that Akbars table was very sumptuous, consisting of more than 40 courses served in great dishes served in great dishes. These dishes were brought into the royal dining hall covered and wrapped in linen cloths, which are tied and sealed, for the fear of poison (J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee ,The Cemetery of Father Monserrate ,1922). The Ain-i-Akbari describes three classes cooked dishes. In the first, called safiyana, consumed by Akbars day of abstinence, no meat was used . The dishes were made of rice (zard-birinj[27], khushka[28], khichri[29] and sheer-birinj[30]), wheat (chikhi[31], essentially the starch of the rice isolated by washing and then seasoned), dhals[32], palak sag[33], halwa, sherbet etc. The second class comprised those in which both meat and rice were employed (like Palao, Biryani[34], Shulla[35] and Shurba[36]), or meat and wheat (Harisa, Halim and Kashk[37] ) .The third class was that in which meat was cooked in ghee, spices, curd, eggs etc. These dishes in due course of time came to be known as Yakhni[38], Kabab, Do-Pyazza[39], Musallam[40], Dampukth[41], Qaliya[42] and Malghuba[43]. Bread in this time was either thick, made from wheat flour and baked in an oven; or thin, and bake on iron plates using dough of either wheat or khushka. Raw material came from various places; rice from Bharaijj , Gwalior , Rajori and Nimlah, ghee[44] from Hissar , ducks, waterfowls and certain vegetables from Kashmir ,and fruits from across the north western borders as well as from all over the country. Though Jahangir, unlike his father, enjoyed eating meat, and especially the animals of the chase, he kept his father schedule of abstinence, adding Thursday to them, that being the day of birth of his son Akbar. He banned the slaughter of animals on Thursday and Sundays. He seemed to have left fish altogether and preferred a khichri called lazizan, made of rice cooked with pulses, ghee, spices and nuts on the days of abstinence from flesh . Another of his favorites was Falooda, jelly made from the straining of boiled wheat, mixed with fruit juices and cream (P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963). Aurangzeb son of Jahangir on the other hand was a Spartan. Tavernier says that no animal passed his lips: he become ‘thin and lean to which the great fasts that he kept have contributed †¦he only drank a little water ,and ate little quantity of millet bread .Besides that he slept on the ground with only a tigers skin over him (P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963). 2.2.Tourism Tourism today is one the fastest growing sectors in the global economy. It is also one ofthe largest sectors in the world economy making ever increasing contributions to global output and employment.In 2008, international tourist arrivals grew by 2% to 924 million, up 16 million over 2007. Analysts further predict that the tourist arrivals will touch 1.6 billion by the year 2020. Tourism is one of the largest income generators for an economy and is growing at a very rapid pace. Growth in tourism also translates into indirect growth and impact on miscellaneous other sectors of the economy (Farooquee, N.A. et al (2008) ‘ Environmental and Socio-Cultural Impacts of River Rafting and Camping on Ganga in Uttarakhand Himalaya). 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION Service industry has gained extreme potential in the past two decades and is now one of the main industries for social and economic growth of any region. This growth has bought along with itself an increase in the global output and various employment opportunities. One of the important components of the service sector is tourism sector. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism as â€Å"The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purpose† (Commission of the European Communities et al., 2001). Tourism incorporates both tangible and intangible elements of service sector. Tourism has evolved over time (six decades approximately) and has been continuing growing and diversifying in order to become the fastest and the largest growing economic sectors in the world. Tourism has been flourishing at an exponential rate thereby promoting and exploring new destinations and in some cases becoming the main driver of the economy. In some the developing countries it is one of the main income generating sector and also the number one in export category there by generating employment on a larger scale. The travel and tourism industry is undergoing a transformation as the significance of this industry is unveiled by most countries. 2.2.2 HISTORY OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELLERS: Tourism has been evident throughout the ages. It has only taken a major jump in the past few decades and has become a major part of the economy. Ancient age travel was mostly an unconscious affair. Travel was mainly an outcome of trade and other commerce activities. In other words, earlier traveler can be regarded as a merchant looking for goods and products and engaging in trade and commerce. Countries like India and China have attracted travelers from all over the ancient world. This trend continued resulting in exploration of different destinations by the Europeans especially heading towards Indian shores for the sole purpose of trade and commerce. The urge to explore new lands and to seek new knowledge in ancient and distant lands was yet another motive of travellers in subsequent periods. Travelling that took place during the Middle Ages was mostly for religious purposes. The practice for travelling for religious purposes became a well established custom in many parts of the wor ld. Romans were known for travelling during this era and wherever they went, there existed a fine network of roads. Tourism gained momentum as soon as changes like the mental attitudes towards pleasure, education based travel; increase in disposal income, need for a break from the monotonous work schedule etc took place. For nearly the first quarter of the 20th century pleasure travel was only for the privileged ones of the society having free time in hand as well as substantial purchasing power. Numerous travel associations were formed during this time of the century who organized trips and vacations for middle class and their families. However, it was the 20th century where a change was witnessed in the whole tourism scenario especially from an international perspective for different purposes like health, business, recreation or religious purposes which led governments to issue passports and visas and take initiatives to their citizens abroad. Increase in tourism has been beneficial for the entire world connecting all the destinations to one another. However, there have been problems associated with developing nations where the government capacity is limited and tourist numbers are increasing. These nations rely highly on tourism and are severely affected when tourism is discouraged on the grounds of criminal activities and safety and security issues. â€Å"These issues and many more like the environmental issues have grown as international tourism arrivals have soared to over 800 million annually. By 2020 that figure is expected to be over 1.6 billion† (World Trade Organization, 1997). Despite these factors, tourism development opens doors to various employment opportunities for the developing nations. 2.2.3 IMPACTS OF TOURISM Tourism is amongst the fastest and most diverse sectors of the economy. It has been a focus of many governments, especially for developing economies, to try and develop tourism as one of the most attractive sectors of the domestic economy. Tourism invariably impacts every region, culture, people, country etc that it touches. These impacts are an intriguing mix of the good and the bad for the region. Governments have to make a trade off between the advantages offered by tourism and the negative impacts brought in by it. Mings and Chulikpongse (1994) have noted tourisms role as an agent of change, bringing myriad impacts on regional economic conditions, social institutions and environmental quality. The impacts of tourism can be categorized into the following parts i.e. Economic Impacts, Socio-Cultural Impacts and Environmental Impacts. 2.2.3. ECONOMIC IMPACTS: In most cases, economic benefits lead to the focused growth of tourism as a sector in any country. Today, tourism is one of the worlds foremost sources of export earnings, if global tourism income and international transportation receipts are included. According to Keiko Noji (2001), Governments focus on tourism development as it presents the easy route to accumulating and increasing the foreign reserves, creating jobs and contributing to over all economic growth. Private sector, which brings commercial gain to the country, is a leading force in the tourism industry. In many cases, foreign capital dominates the domestic and international market and tourism expenditure goes outside of the country. There are potential positive and negative impacts of such tourism development. 2.2.3.1 Financial: Tourism helps the host community earn various pecuniary gains in the form growth in the foreign exchange reserves, Gross Domestic Product, growth in regional commercial enterprises and for individuals as well. For e.g. the contribution of Travel Tourism to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indiahas been forecasted to remain constant at 6.1% in 2008 to 6.1% in 2018. Also, Export earnings from international travelers and tourism goods contributed 6.7% of total exports in 2008, and it is anticipated that this will rise to 4.4% of total in 2018 (Source: World Travel Tourism Council 2008). 2.2.3.2 Employment Opportunity: Tourism development in a region leads to the more employment opportunities and higher wage rates for men and women and access to better training for employees. Lee (1996) studied the economic effects of tourism in New Zealand and concluded that tourism performed better than most industries in generating employment and tax revenues and performed moderately well in distributing income among household income classes. Cukier-Snow and Wall (1994) also examined tourism employment growth in Bali, concluding an increase in the employment of women. The contribution of the Travel Tourism Economy to employment â€Å"in India is expected to rise from 30,491,000 jobs in 2008, 6.4% of total employment, or 1 in every 15.6 jobs to 39,615,000 jobs, 7.2% of total employment or 1 in every 13.8 jobs by 2018† (Source: World Travel Tourism Council 2008). The pluses associated with tourism overpower the negatives it brings with it. However, negative impacts associated with tourism can not be ignored. The employment is often part-time and low paid. The skilled positions are occupied by foreign nationals and therefore there is disparity in the income distribution pattern often associated with leakages. 2.2.3.3 Services: Tourism creates growth opportunities in a region. It leads to the creation of new facilities, utilities and recreation facilities that would not have been possible or financially viable to provide in the community. Tourist expectations can lead to better service by local shops, restaurants, and other business operators and entrepreneurs. The tourist traffic in a community leads to better facilities such as fire department, police, and health services which also benefits the local residents. However, long-established and conventional services may be forced out or relocated due to competition with tourist interests. Water, power, fuel, and other shortages may be experienced because of increased pressure on the infrastructure. 2.2.3.4 Others: Other economic impacts of tourism includes expansion of the economic base (i.e., diversification), Inter-sectoral linkage and Multiplier effects, growth of entrepreneurship as products and services can be locally produced by tourism related and other business, creation and growth of infrastructure facilities, betterment of social services and encouragement of regional development in underdeveloped areas. The most profound impact that tourism has on the host economy is through the development and growth of infrastructure in the domestic country. 2.2.4 SOCIO CULTURAL IMPACTS: Tourism can be act as either an international peace maker and can help in understanding or it can be a destructive force attacking different cultures, ecology, and local communities (Mirbabayev. B, Shagazatova. M). Thus, development of a tourist destinations and its associated conveniences and benefits require a detailed plan in order to achieve triumph over the negativity associated with it, especially in developing countries where conserving and developing the quality of life of local populations is challenging. The social and cultural implications of tourism necessitate thorough and detailed deliberations, as effects can either translate into long term benefits or detriments to communities. A nations culture and social environment is extremely vulnerable and thus it needs protection and preservation, as tourism is an eroding force of modernization. ( Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997) 2.2.4.1 Cultural Impacts: Local culture of a region or country is the focal point for attracting tourists to the region. Though the local sculpture, music, dance, cuisine, clothing, handicrafts and traditional customs, ceremonies and folklore are a source of attraction, tourism can lead to commercialization and misuse of these very assets. This will further lead to the deterioration, degradation and finally the disappearance and the local culture. Some of the customary activities of a region may seem absurd to the tourists may lead the tourists to oppose and derogatory activities against the local culture (Xavier, 2001). Cultural aspects of host regions act as tourist attractors, but are simultaneously vulnerable to acculturation. Though it has a negative impact on the local traditions, various authors have studied that it can assist in the preservation process. According to a study carried out by Teye, tourism can contribute to greater understanding between North and South Africa by developing cultural tourism which promotes host-guest experiences and not than superficial encounters, (Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997). In another case study on the impacts of tourism on the Khajuraho temple in India, it is stated that tourism can bring economic relief and prosperity to local community, with minimal socio-cultural costs. (Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997) 2.2.5.2 Social Impacts: Social interface amid tourists and local community may result in mutual appreciation, understanding, acceptance, awareness and learning. It gives the host community a big boost in confidence and esteem, and reduces prejudices and abolishes preconceived notions and perceptions. Local communities are benefited through contribution by tourism to the improvement of the social infrastructure for example development of roads, parks, museums, health care institutions, internet cafes etc. Robinson (1999), states that there is no evidence that proves that tourism is bringing different cultures together. Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion. Tourism has an adverse impact on the traditional practices, the perception of the residents. Unbalanced population structures, displacement of local people, a negative behavior by visitors toward residents and an adverse effect on the overall community life. Various studies have been carried out to determine that an increase in tourism has a direct impact on the increase in crime rate of a destination, as most often tourists are the victims to these criminal acts (McElroy, Tarlow Carlisle, 2007). Tourism can and often does lead to problems such as prostitution, alcoholism, gambling and drug trafficking. There are few tourist destinations immune to this problem (Noji.K, 2001). Hence it is extremely essential to promote tourism in the region while ensuring that it provides both incomes as well as generates respect for the local tradition and culture. 2.3 Food Tourism Food Tourism is all about food as a subject and medium, destination and vehicle, for tourism. It is about individuals exploring foods new to them as well as using food to explore new culture and ways of being. It is about groups using food to ‘sell their histories and to construct marketable and publically attractive identities, and it is about individuals satisfying curiosity. Finally it is about experiencing of food in a mode that is out of the ordinary, that steps outside the normal routine to notice difference and the power of food to represent and negotiate the difference. Folklorist, food scholars and food aficionados have long fascinated by occasions of exploratory eating- instances of eating the new, the unfamiliar, the alien- and by the institutional cookbooks and folklife festivals. These occasions and include variety of food related behaviours and reflect complex network of cultural, social, economic and aesthetic systems as well as individual preferences. The definition of what constitutes adventurous eating is a contextual one that depends on the perspective and motivations of the eater. The author states that the purpose of food tourism as a framework is to try together the notion of perspective and variety of instances in which a foodways is considered representative of the other. Lucy M Long (2007) defines food tourism as the international as the international, exploratory participation in the foodways another-participation including the consumption, preparation and presentation of food items, cuisine, meal system or eating style considered to a culinary system that no one owns. This definition emphasis on the individual as an active agent in constructing meaning within a tourist experience and it allows for an aesthetic response to food as a part of the experience. Exploration and internationality define these instances as tourism. Valence Smith (1989) defines a tourist as a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a place away from home for the purpose of experiencing a change. The culinary tourist participates for the purpose of experiencing a change in foodways not merely hunger. Nelson Graburn (1989) proposed that for the tourist to experience is a journey from profane to the sacred as a way to embellish and add meaning to ones life. The tourist experience offers not only new cultures and new sights, but also a new way of perceiving those sights and these new way eventually enhance an individual. Johan Urry (1990) developed this notion of tourism as quantitative category of experience, defining it as a kind of viewing he refers to as a â€Å" tourist gaze†. This gaze is different from â€Å"every day looking† in that it attends to difference . It notices contrast and distinctiveness , it shifts the ordinary action and objects out of the ordinary world enable ling and encouraging viewers to rcognise their power as symbols , entertainment and art. 2.4 Authenticity and Culinary Tourism in Mughlai Restaurants across Delhi and Agra Food tourism has long been linked with authenticity in Mughlai restaurants across Delhi and Agra. Lifestyle magazines such as Gourmet and Travel Leisure reveal the connection between food and tourism. On the other side , backpacker guides like the Lonely Planet always include sections on local foods and where to eat while traveling. As these magazines demonsterate food and tourism go hand in hand. But when eating is tourism, a whole new theoretical framework arises. Culinary tourism, the exploration of foreign foodways as a representative of an other provides a framework for interrogating the various intersections between tourism and foodways (Long, 1998). The term authensity has been widely used to study both foodways and tourism, it can also be applied within the frame work of culinary tourism to have a better understanding about social dynamics, particularly the process of identity construction and va

Development Broadcasting in India and Beyond

In this journal, Fursich sets out by decrying the effect of commercial satellite television in many Asian countries whose media was state run. This, he says, leaves the old-hand broadcasters with only one way of survival: reassess their role in the newly competitive market. Fursich has a valid point here; the old broadcasters have to re-invent themselves in the ever dynamic market landscape lest they remain irrelevant (Johnson, 54). As we are left to think of the reassessment of the new market’s needs, the issue of globalization of commercial media should be centermost.The Indian context used by Fursich to advance his argument does not out rightly discredit his point because of the premise that many a researcher have researched on Indian media with reference to the topic. However there are disparities in the measure of response to media commercialization in different third world countries (Eko, 67). To use the Indian broadcaster Doordarshan (DD) as a microcosm of all the third world media is to overlook some vital components of a totalitarian research.In fact, it makes his expose’ much of India and less of â€Å"and Beyond†, an aspect which could have been avoided if Fursich could quote the media situation in some other third world nations. The severe pressure that Fursich says has faced DD in the new satellite and cable channels’ era awaits most of those other â€Å"traditional channels†-those that were there before the advent of commercial satellite television (Hamelink, 174). This is because the media was government owned, and the basic purpose was to educate the masses making the need for financing an n entertainment channel veer off the reason for its establishment.Even as the general policy of these state-owned channels change, to borrow from the Doordashan’s case, the issue of tailing and not leading arises as he aptly states. Most state-owned media across the third world form poor matches to the numerous private ly owned commercial channels; one is because their content is more dynamic and the channels are many. The mention of the Television’s historical development since 1950’s serves as a base for understanding the notion of broadcasting as a tool for national development, a concept that still rules in most African media settings (Eko 179).This tool for national development is what later turned to be a political tool. The argument here fits into the reality very well as stated by Cambridge (151) that the state owned and funded media were overly dependent on western programming and furthered the interests of the political elites while at the same time limiting the forms of expression and national identity development. The present situation, thanks to commercialization of the media has greatly increased the use of communication as part of international trade agreements and not political initiatives (Hamelink 172).The negotiations in international trade have also enhanced priva tization of communication infrastructure a point mentioned by Fursich in his article. The state funding, its abuse by political elite and the widening global marketing can be said to have liberated the media. This follows from Hamelink’s argument (Hamelink 172) above that international trade agreements and not political initiatives improved communication. The end result as Fursich states was that the state-owned broadcasters had to adjust to what he calls a mixed economic model that encompassed advertising and reducing state subsidies.The new commercial media environment, he adds, led to among others proliferation of shows stations and formats with advertising focused on the haves, neglecting the have-nots. I could not agree more with Fursich on this point primarily because ,brought down by the heavy financial needs so as to achieve its national goals, the national broadcaster of any country will use all means possible to hang onto the issues in its blue print. When faced by imminent downfall, what did Doordarshan do? This question could as well apply to any other state-owned broadcaster in the third world.DD however had an upper hand as its basic foundation on development mandate and though tailored for this purpose, it positioned itself as not only local but also international competitor to the channels that offered a range of programs. From this information, the issue of ambition can be seen, raising question whether the aims of a given broadcaster can be realized if it crosses the geographical boundary of a third world nation and still aim to satisfy the locals and the ever competitive international market (Johnson, 2000).The same rhetorical can be inferred from Fursich’s article. India’s effort in making its broadcast center on programming and technological innovations that dealt with agricultural education and nation building is worth appraisal unlike, as Fursich says, the other post-colonial countries’ mixed programming strat egy that imported former colonial masters’ programs. This allowed the educational aim of the media to be realized as the citizenry were given lessons on what locally faced them and thus doing away with the surrealistic mixed genres of other post colonial nations.The state funding of the DD, which was increased (Kumar, 20) thereby enabling promotion of state initiatives and later assisted in the setting of additional centers other than New Delhi. This is worth borrowing especially by the third world nations whose state-owned media stations are at the verge of collapse due to inadequate financing. The focus on the primary goals of a state-owned media can be kept at the same time introduce entertainment programs that were not initially planned for. This can be seen in the case of DD which housed two operas in 1980’s (Fursich, 378) that had been slotted in by the broadcaster in its bid to go commercial.The themes of the opera the Hum Log was family planning, and women educ ation ,topics that cannot be said to be just for entertaining households but also educating them. The point here is that programs can be chosen so as to work in a two-pronged way, entertain the citizenry and educate them (Kumar 30). The coming into the Indian market by such private broadcasters as CNN and MTV can serve as an eye opener to the state-owned media in the third world into the insight of collaborative business contracts which will ultimately rid them of any financial problems that may result due to the state’s inability to fund them fully.The localized transmittance of certain programs that appeal to the locals as in the case of India can greatly improve the markets of upcoming economies. The locals will be paying for the programs they like most and in return the state will easily achieve its goals. This is a noble initiative by the Indian broadcaster that should be adopted by the other third world nations. In this case, such issues as cultural conservation can eas ily be achieved because the localized transmittance serves persons with more or less the same cultural orientations.Some worries may creep into the state-owned broadcaster because while is strives to accomplish its missions, the state has a stake in what should really reach the citizenry thus making these state-owned media to lack autonomy. Having looked at various aspects of the Indian broadcaster and what challenges it has faced, I can postulate that the same challenges can befall any state-owned broadcaster in the third world. The choice of India a representation of all the third world countries without an attempt of a comparative approach cannot discredit the immense and valuable information by Fursich’s article.

The simplicity with which Brutus speaks is what makes his voice so powerful

Dennis Brutus is an internationally known poet whose poems centre on his sufferings and those of his fellow blacks in South Africa under apartheid. His outspoken protests against apartheid led to an 18-month prison term on Robben Island. He has written many poems regarding his imprisonment and the horrors of the regime in South Africa. Brutus exhibits a restrained artistic control when writing his poems, which record his experiences of misery and loneliness as a political prisoner. His language and versification are simple and direct. If anything, the hardship and suffering are understated with the result that the experiences described are conveyed with even greater force. The natural elements and symbolism used by Brutus assists him in writing his poems. Using such pleasant descriptive features to describe the violence, gives it even more impact. â€Å"Cold† is a short and compact poem with the title itself referring to a form of discomfort felt by Brutus whilst being imprisoned. The opening lines of the poem convey more of the distress experienced by Brutus. â€Å"The clammy cement sucks our naked feet† The sensory description of the cement sucking up the moisture from their ‘naked feet' seems as if life itself is being extracted from the individuals. His choice of words is extremely effective as he uses ‘naked' rather than bare. This implying that they were deprived of their human rights and dehumanised. With the additional description regarding the surroundings and actions of the prisoners, ‘the stubbled grass wet with three o' clock dew,' – ‘stuff with our fingers the sugarless pap into our mouths,' the situation concerning the prisoners appears to become more dismal. The fact that they ‘stuffed' the food into their mouth conveys that they were given a limited amount of time to eat it; furthermore, they had been deprived of their food since then. Additionally, the ‘three o' clock dew' signifies the early hours in which they had to wake for their long journey allowing the reader to understand the harshness of their regime. Throughout the poem, an impression of the surroundings is gained to be nondescript due to the insipid colours used to describe the surroundings. The ‘rheumy yellow bulb' that ‘lights a damp grey wall' gives the notion of everything being weak and the prisoners being in impoverish conditions. Brutus does not state any of his emotions, whether they are of anger, anguish or sorrow – it is left to the reader to interpret the graveness of the conditions. Brutus simply writes the state of affairs he is in, however, it is only until the closing stages of the poem does Brutus mention the fact that his ankles and wrists are chained. One wonders why such a significant factor is stated at the end of the poem rather than the beginning of it. It shows to a certain extent that Brutus does not want to gain sympathy from the reader seeing that otherwise he would have said this earlier, alongside elaborating on the other factors of discomfort and deprivation that he has previously cited. It is only after the reader realises that the prisoners are chained do they clearly perceive the full picture. The fact that the prisoners are made to walk with ‘naked feet', at three o' clock in the morning, is barely comprehendible. However, when one realises that their ankles and wrists are chained, the sympathy for the prisoners intensifies. The poem finishes with words of understatement as Brutus states, ‘we begin to move awkwardly.' He is understating the difficulty and pain felt by himself and the prisoners. It can be seen again that Brutus does not care to gain sympathy from the reader and so minimizes the actual torture and misery he and his inmates feel. Brutus does not need to elaborate on the extent of his discomfort. He merely states the situation he is in, in the simplest of terms and seemingly disregards it and imparts to a different topic discarding all emotions. Felt o the previous topic. However academic speaking in language, every reader understands the content of the poem – It is concise and to the point. There are a number of essential opponents that make the poem so powerful. The overall depth of the poem is conceived by the simplicity. Alongside the themes of discomfort and imprisonment that are conveyed from Brutus' poems, the reader also gains the impression of how the poet accepts the situation in hand without giving in. Brutus acknowledges the circumstances he is in and does what he can to think of the experience in prison as beneficial as can be for him. He is aware of the fact that there is no point in resisting the regime and subsequently has to come to terms with the conditions. In '10', an ever-present optimistic view is taken to the lifestyle owed to his imprisonment, unlike ‘Cold' where the reader can deeply sense the deprivation. The structure of the two poems is similar as there is neither rhythm nor rhyme in the irregular numbered verses, each containing independent actions. In '10,' Brutus accentuates certain things, which he is grateful for. However, it has to be taken into account that the poem is a letter to a family member (Martha) therefore he may have been not telling the entire truth of the situation as wanting to assure the recipient that it was ‘not all terror and deprivation.' The poet states how he comes to ‘welcome the closer contact and understanding one achieves with one's fellow-men, fellows, compeers;' One cannot help but observe the repetition of the word ‘fellow.' It seems as if Brutus is trying to emphasise that the prisoners are all equals and share the same aims. They gain understanding and comfort from each other due to the fact that they are in the same situation. Furthermore, Brutus states how the ‘discipline does much to force a shape and pattern on one's daily life as well as on the days.' The regime of the prison is his purpose to cling onto life, as he does not want the days to merge into night. Such things as the time of rising, lights out and meal times give the days ‘shape' and regularity – a ritual of existence. By looking at things from a certain point of view, Brutus turns things to his own advantage. He refers to hard labour as ‘honest toil' that ‘offers some redeeming hours for the wasted years,' making life worthwhile. He does not regard the hard labour as torment or agony; instead, he refers to it as if it is something that he enjoys. The way in which Brutus accepts the situation without giving in, allows him to cope with the humiliation and pressures of prison. The strength of mind and the importance of positive thinking is vital when living in such circumstances where he and the prisoners are referred to, by the wardens, with derogatory terms such as ‘rats.' In ‘Cold' Brutus states how he and the prisoners, ‘steel' themselves ‘into fortitude' signifying to a certain extent that they have the physical and mental capacity to survive whatever they are up against and tolerate everything forced onto them for good to prevail. ‘Savouring to the full its bitterness and seeking to escape nothing,' the prisoners can only find it deep within themselves to find something that keeps intact their mental health and refreshes them of the enmity. Throughout the poems, Brutus refers to nature when, escaping from the ‘hostile' sanctums of the prison. He compares his mind, when ‘bright and restful' to the, ‘full calm morning sea.' Even though the sea is something that he cannot observe, it does not prevent him from thinking about it – A good time for a fresh start. Several references to the sky are also made – ‘the mind turns upwards when it can.' Rather than looking down and being dispirited, Brutus looks up toward the sky and remains hopeful despite the situation he is in. This is oxymoronic due to the fact that the situation is hopeless yet Brutus still has hope in his mind and heart to overcome the hostility of the prison. He values the simple things of life whilst looking out of the confines of the prison such as the stars. The stars are something beyond his worldly situation, which signify hopes and dreams. When Brutus refers to the ‘Southern Cross flowering low' in ‘Cold', he may have been implying that the two countering religions were in close proximity to fusion as the Southern Cross represents a unifying religious movement. Even though, ‘the arcs and fluorescents' block the stars out, the Southern Cross is still visible to Brutus, due to its bright intensity. The sky, stars and the birds aid Brutus add to the impact of the poetry. Their connection to his family, however slender, assists him in surviving. He contemplates whether the clouds that he is observing are being ‘seen by those at home.' Such trivial matters of ones daily life seem so significant to the one of Brutus whose imprisonment makes him value and fantasise what one may take for granted, such as the ‘complex aeronautics of the birds.' Brutus uses his mind to escape from the sanctums of the prison and interact with his family. In the poem, ‘For a Dead African' Dennis Brutus does not use his mind to escape and fantasise of the upcoming events, but states these things with such assurance that one gains the impression that there is nothing that can stop it from occurring and will so in the near future. The simplicity in the poem, ‘For A Dead African,' is what makes it so powerful. The poem has a conventional rhythm and rhyme with the first and third lines of each verse rhyming with each other. The content of the poem is deeper than the others and the sombre title signifies this. The first two verses illustrate the negative aspects of the continuous struggle against apartheid, which is unusual as Brutus generally holds an optimistic view toward his imprisonment. Nevertheless, here he talks of the ‘victims of a sickly state,' signifying the fact that South Africa was not presided over by a government that was conclusive. Brutus also uses natural imagery to illustrate the beatings and punishments, which were experienced by the Africans. ‘succumbing to the variegated sores that flower under lashing rains of hate.' It is interesting the way in which Brutus uses such pleasant descriptive features to exemplify the hatred. ‘Lashing,' signifying the heavy downpour of hatred upon the Africans, resulting in ‘variegated sores' to appear. The second verse of the poem does not state the true adversity, when it states the ‘accidental dyings in the dark.' Of course, they did not occur on ‘eyeless nights' nor were they ‘accidental' but they were jus put down to it, as people did not want to protest. Again the reader sees the understatement presented by Brutus. However, it is the last verse of ‘For A Dead African,' that truly represents the talent of Brutus. The optimism from the last verse excels, alongside the ability Brutus possesses of conceiving the depth of the message. It can be seen that Brutus believes strongly in his theme of having to endure the pain for there to be anything commendable resulting from it. Brutus believes that they will be freed from the tyranny and that the ‘nameless unarmed ones will stand beside the warriors who secured the final prize.' Everybody will have contributed to the freeing of their land. The certainty Brutus holds of predicting this to occur is what makes his voice so powerful. Simply stating actions or descriptions with neither doubt nor contradiction is what makes his poems prevailing. Brutus has the talent of making the reader see and believe what he himself sees and believes doing this, just through the power of words. When Brutus refers to the ‘walls of bleak hostility,' it is a curt comment describing the austere conditions of the prison. However, with these words and the force applied to them, the reader cannot refrain from sympathising with the prisoner due to the conditions he is in. Even though one would think that the tone used in Brutus' poems would be subjective, the majority of the time it is objective. He simply states the state of affairs and leaves the rest up to the reader to infer. Brutus does not emphasise certain things nor does he look for the reader's sympathy and condolences. Conclusively I think it is Brutus' ability to speak in such simplistic terms with such assurance and confirmation of the events taking place and subsequently to take place in the near future, is what makes his voice so powerful.

The 3 Best Sites to Learn a New Word Every Day

In terms of vocabulary development, we were all little geniuses in childhood, learning hundreds of new words every year. By the time we entered first grade, most of us had active vocabularies of several thousand words. Unfortunately, we werent geniuses for very long. By age 11 or 12, equipped with a sizable survival vocabulary, most of us lost some of our early enthusiasm for language, and the rate at which we picked up new words began to decline significantly. As adults, if we dont make deliberate efforts to increase our vocabularies, were lucky to pick up even 50 or 60 new words a year. The English language has so much to offer (at least half a million words by most reckonings) that it would be a shame to let our vocabulary-building talents go to waste. So heres one way that we can regain some of our youthful brilliance: learn a new word each day. Whether youre a student preparing for the SAT, ACT, or GRE, or simply an unabashed logophile (or lover of words), starting each day with a fresh word can be intellectually nourishing—and more enjoyable than a bowl of All-Bran. Here are three of our favorite daily word sites: all are free and available through e-mail subscriptions. A.Word.A.Day (AWAD) Founded in 1994, A.Word.A.Day at Wordsmith.org is the creation of Anu Garg, an India-born computer engineer who clearly enjoys sharing his pleasure in words. Simply designed, this popular site (over a million subscribers from more than 170 countries) offers concise definitions and examples of words that relate to a different theme every week. The New York Times has called this the most welcomed, most enduring piece of daily mass e-mail in cyberspace. Recommended for all word lovers. Oxford English Dictionary Word of the Day For many of us, the Oxford English Dictionary is the ultimate reference work, and the OED Word of the Day provides a complete entry (including a wealth of illustrative sentences) from the 20-volume dictionary. You can sign up to have the OEDs Word of the Day delivered by e-mail or RSS web feed. Recommended for scholars, English majors, and logophiles. Merriam-Websters Word of the Day Less expansive than the OED site, the daily word page hosted by this U.S. dictionary-maker offers an audio pronunciation guide along with basic definitions and etymologies. The Merriam-Webster Word of the Day is also available as a podcast, which you can listen to on your computer or MP3 player. Recommended for high school and college students as well as advanced ESL students. Other Daily Word Sites These sites should also be useful to high school and college students. Dictionary.com Word of the DayThe Learning Network (The New York Times)The Quotations Page Word of the Day Of course, you dont have to go online to learn new words. You can simply begin making a list of new words that you encounter in your reading and conversations. Then look up each word in a dictionary and write down the definition along with a sentence that illustrates how the word is used. But if you need a little encouragement to work on building your vocabulary every day, sign up for one of our favorite word-a-day sites.